Introduction
God works in the way of recovery. He created an earth that caused the angels to rejoice (Job 38:4-7), but it became “without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep” (Gen. 1:2). Then God began to recover the earth by bringing forth light, dry land, and the many kinds of life. God’s recovery work is also seen in His dealings with the children of Israel. When they were enslaved in Egypt, God delivered them through Moses, and Joshua brought them to the good land of Canaan. When the Israelites were unfaithful and turned to idols, God disciplined them with captivity at the hands of various enemies. But, when the people turned back to God and cried out to Him, He rescued them again and again by sending judges and kings to fight for them.
After the building of the temple in the place chosen by God (Deut. 12:1 1), He sent prophets to call Israel out of her degradation and backsliding. Eventually, the temple was destroyed, and nearly the entire nation was led captive into Babylon. Yet, after 70 years of exile, God led a remnant to return to the land. These faithful saints rebuilt the temple and the cities to prepare for the coming of the promised Messiah. This was another work of recovery.
In the New Testament age, God’s recovery work continued. His kingdom was given to the church (Matt. 21:43). However, the church of God was no more immune from decline than the children of Israel had been. Paul warned of future “difficult times” in which men would have “an outward form of godliness, though denying its power” (2 Tim. 3:1, 5). The epistles to the seven churches in Asia (Rev. 2-3) foreshadowed some key characteristics of the coming downward trend, including the religious hierarchy (2:15) and idolatry (2:14, 20) of the Roman Catholic Church in subsequent centuries. During those dark ages the truths concerning God’s salvation, the living experience of Christ, and the building up of the church as Christ’s Body were nearly lost in Christian teaching.
Yet God would again undertake His work of recovery. During the Reformation, the light of God’s salvation began to shine again in the teachings of Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, and others. Some who came later saw this light more and more clearly as the Lord recovered, one after another, the many aspects of “so great a salvation” (Heb. 2:3). Unfortunately, many of these teachers divided from one another, forming denominations in an effort to preserve the light they had seen. Yet God went on to recover the inner experience of Christ as the Spirit of life (Rom. 8:2, 9-1 1) through saints such as Arndt, Guyon, and Law. Eventually, equipped with Christ as their Savior and their life, Zinzendorf and others began to yeam for the church promised by the Lord: “I will build My church” (Matt. 16:18). These believers were drawn together by the Lord out of the various denominations “to keep the oneness of the Spirit” (Eph. 4:3). At the same time they were thrust out by the Lord of the harvest (Matt. 9:38) to reach all the nations with the word of the gospel.
Succeeding generations of seekers have continually developed along the lines of truth, life, the gospel, and the church. Today we stand on the shoulders of so many who have gone before us. As the Lord’s recovery reaches its consummation, His overcomers must “arrive at the oneness of the faith and of the full knowledge of the Son of God, at a full-grown man, at the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ” (Eph. 4:13). We believe that the saints whose sketches are included in this booklet were vessels useful to the Lord along the way of His recovery. We hope that their biographies will encourage us to follow “the footsteps of the flock, (S.S. 1:8) as we take part in God’s recovery work in our own generation.
In chronological order by date of birth:
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX (1090-1153)
Born of noble parents at Fontaines, near Dijon, France; a Cistercian monk who founded the monastery of Clairvaux and 500 other monasteries; defended Catholic orthodoxy; practiced asceticism; preached the Second Crusade; emphasized Christ as center in all things and the Word as our spouse; 86 sermons on Song of Songs; wrote “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts,” “O Sacred Head Now Wounded,” “Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee.”
FRANCIS OF ASSISI (1182-1226)
Founder of Franciscan Order; born in Assisi in Central Italy; little education; after experiencing a deep spiritual awakening, made a pilgrimage to Rome; adopted strict asceticism, which separated him from family and society; drafted set of rules for his life (1210) and asked for and received papal permission to start a new order; monks (known as Friars Minor) took vow of poverty and went about two by two to preach, sing, care for sick; brotherhood spread; Franciscan Order put in his hands and given new rules (1222); writings: Francis and Clare, New York: Paulist Press, 1982; biography: Adolf Holl, The Last Christian. A Biography of Francis of Assisi, Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1979.
BONAVENTURE (1217-1274)
Born in Tuscany, Italy; a Catholic scholastic and mystic; a close friend of Thomas Aquinas but opposed to Aristotle; called the “Seraphic Doctor”; viewed Christian enlightenment as superior to human wisdom; his book, The Tree of Life, presents Christ as the tree of life, whose virtues are a model for Christians; his writings center on Christ and are full of Scriptures and the writings of the early church fathers; rejected doctrine of immaculate conception; writings: The Soul’s Journey into God, The Tree of Life, The Life of St. Francis, New York: Paulist Press, 1978.
MEISTER ECKHART (1260-1327)
German preacher, theologian; born near Gotha, in Saxony; educated at Cologne, Paris, and Erfurt, where he joined the Dominican order; lectured and preached with power throughout Germany; stressed union with God and a consciousness of God, that good deeds do not make a man righteous, that a man must be righteous to do righteous deeds, and that Christ is the focal point of mankind and its Redeemer; most important work was Opus Tripartitum (1314); writings: Meister Eckhart-The Essential Sermons, Commentaries, Treatises, and Defense, Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1981; Meister Eckhart-Teacher and Preacher, Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1986.
JOHN WYCLIFFE (1330-1384)
“The Morning Star of the Reformation,” English reformer; born near Richmond, Yorkshire; studied Balliol College, Oxford, a brilliant scholar; became able member of Oxford faculty, received doctor of theology (1372); influenced by Augustine’s writings; preached in Oxford and London against pope’s secular sovereignty; publicized ideas by tract and leaflet; outspoken attack on Church of Rome caused his summons before bishop of London at St. Paul’s (1377); pope condemned his writings; received strong support from the people, scholars, and English nobles; proclaimed a pure gospel acknowledging Bible as only source of truth; rejected infallibility of pope; believed papal decrees were only valid if in harmony with Scriptures, clergy were to serve and help, not rule; challenged transubstantiation, indulgences, religious orders, purgatory, and other Roman dogmas; enlisted body of “poor priests” (later called Lollards) to evangelize and spread his views (1380); archbishop of London prohibited his preaching; translated first English Bible; wrote Trialogues emphasizing obedience to Scripture and conscience; writings condemned at Council of Constance (1415) and burned; his body later exhumed and burned (1428); his views were carried to Prague and John Hus by Oxford students and kept alive the Reformation; biographies: Professor Lechler, John Wycliffe and His English Precursors, translated by Dr. Lorimer London: Religious Tract Society, 1904; Reginald Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform, New York: Anson Randolf & Co., 1889.
JOHN HUS (1372-1415)
Bohemian reformer; born in Husinec, Bohemia, of peasant parents; bachelor’s and master’s degrees from U. of Prague; lectured there on theology (1396); ordained a Catholic priest (1402); rector of U. of Prague; powerful preacher at Bethlehem Chapel; loyal to R.C. Church, but appreciated Wycliffe’s ideas on church reform and translated his Trialogues; preached Wycliffe’s views, creating a popular movement, Hussitism; leader of national Bohemian party at university; branded a heretic; the nation rallied around him; excommunicated, continued to teach and preach; wrote Of the Church (1413) attacking transubstantiation, submission to the pope, belief in saints, efficacy of priestly absolution, unconditional obedience to earthly rulers, simony; maintained that the Scriptures are the sole rule of faith; summoned to Council of Constance (1414) and promised safe passage by king, emperor, and pope; prosecuted, condemned, imprisoned, burned at stake (1415); biographies: Matthew Spinka, John Hus’ Concept of the Church, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966; Matthew Spinka, John His at the Council Of Constance, New York: Columbia University Press, 1965.
THOMAS A KEMPIS (1380-1471)
Author of The Imitation of Christ; born in Kempen, Germany; educated by the Brethren of the Common Life (Holland), who influenced him to enter an Augustinian monastery (1400); ordained a priest (1413); stressed the supremacy of Christ, devotion to Christ, the inner life, and fellowship with God; copied Bible four times.
PETER CHELCICKY (1390-1460)
Leader of the forerunners of the Bohemian Brethren; influenced in Prague by John Wycliffe; opposed monasticism as service to God; followers known as Cheleic Brethren.
MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
German reformer; born at Eisleben of peasant parents; studied at U. of Erfurt (1501); after narrow escape from death, entered monastery of Augustinian Order (1505), where he first studied Bible diligently; became most learned among Augustinians; especially studied Romans, Galatians, works of William of Occam, Augustine; sent by his order as representative to Rome; shocked by corruption at papal court; professor of theology at U. of Wittenberg, lectured on the Bible and theology; saw truth of justification vs. doctrine of work-righteousness; reformation principles: justification by faith alone, direct access to God, Bible as sole authority for faith and life; Ninety-five Theses nailed on church door at Wittenberg challenging to debate on indulgences (Oct. 31, 1517); summoned to Rome by pope to debate with John Eck (1519); issued tracts attacking sacraments and hierarchy, asserting Bible as sole authority, justification by faith, priesthood of all believers; burned bull issued against him (1520); excommunicated and broke with Rome (1521); translated NT and OT into German (1522, 1534); married (1525); wrote two catechisms (1529); composed hymn, “A Mighty Fortress”; writings: commentary on Galatians; On the Bondage of the Will; biographies: Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1950; Judith O’Neill, Martin Luther, London: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
ULRICH ZWINGLI (1484-1531)
Swiss reformer; born to prosperous family of Upper Toggenberg, Switzerland; educated at schools in Basel, Berne, Vienna; parish priest in Glarus (1506); gifted preacher, became chief pastor at Great Minster Church in Zurich; expounded Scriptures; sermons were scriptural, evangelical, fearless; attacked clerical celibacy, worship of image of Mary, sale of indulgences, other church abuses; influenced by Erasmus’ Greek NT and his humanist views; plague in Zurich killed one-third of population; having been close to death, consecrated life to will of God; acquainted with Luther’s writings and became a reformer; open break with Rome (1523); aligned with Swiss reformers, he was first “Reformed” theologian; published his Commentary on True and False Religion (1525) and An Exposition of the Faith (1531); conflict with Anabaptists over baptism and Lutherans over doctrines; held Lord’s Table as a memorial of Christ’s death; Catholic Swiss Cantons fought Protestant Cantons; died serving as chaplain to army, at Kappel; friend Oecolampadius died later that year; Zwingli’s successor was Heinrich Bullinger, close friend of John Calvin; biographies: Jean Grob, Ulric Zwingli, translated by J.S. Stahr, Reading, PA: Daniel Miller, 1885; G.R. Potter, Zwingli, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
CASPAR SCHWENKFELD (1489-1561)
Born in Silesia of noble parents; friend of Luther, enthusiastically embraced Lutheran Reformation; opposed war, secret societies, oath-taking; denied State right to command against conscience; his emphasis on inward, subjective experience caused split with Luther, Zwingli, and Bucer; his Great Confession (1540) stated that regeneration is by grace through inward work of Spirit, and believers feed on Christ (His celestial flesh) spiritually; rejected infant baptism and outward church forms; observed sacraments spiritually; followers called “confessors of the glory of Christ”; believed church members must give evidence of regeneration experience; opposed sects, denominations; never formed followers into an organization; Schwenkfelders organized themselves in Philadelphia (1734); biographies: Rufus M. Jones, Spiritual Reformers in the 16th and 17th Centuries, Boston: Beacon Press, 1914; Christopher Schultz, A Vindication of Caspar Schwenckfeld Von Ossig (1769), translated by Elmer Schultz Gerhard, Allentown, PA: Edward Schlechter, 1942.
WILLIAM FAREL (1489-1565)
French reformer; born at Gap, Dauphine; studied philosophy, theology, languages at U. of Paris and taught there; his teacher influenced him to accept Reformed views, which he fervently preached; pioneered Protestantism in Switzerland; labored with Oecolampadius in Basel, Bucer in Strassburg, and persuaded Calvin to stay in Geneva (1536); opposition forced Farel and Calvin to leave; Farel went to Neuchatel, where he preached and wrote in support of the Reformation until his death; biography: Francis Bevan, The Life of William Farel, Oak Park, IL: Bible Truth Publishers, 1975.
WILLIAM TYNDALE (1494-1536)
Bible translator, reformer, and martyr; born in North Nibley, Gloucestershire, England; ordained (1521); educated at Oxford and Cambridge; outstanding Greek scholar; works of Luther and Erasmus inspired him to provide a Bible in the people’s language; studied Hebrew; printing of English NT was stopped by police in Cologne (1525) but was completed in Worms, Germany; opposed by Thomas More and relentlessly attacked by archbishop of Canterbury; hunted down, betrayed by his helper who pirated his work; smuggled NT into England along with his book, The Obedience of a Christian Man, and influenced English people; came out of hiding, lived in Antwerp, Belgium, and continued writing; worked as an evangelist; arrested, imprisoned, tried for heresy and treason, strangled, body burned; biography: R. DeMaus, William Tyndale, London: The Religious Tract Society, 1871.
MENNO SIMONS (1496-1559)
Dutch Anabaptist; born in Witmarsum, Holland; early leader of Mennonite churches; educated for priesthood and ordained (1524); witnessed martyrdom of man rebaptized (1531); served as pastor in village of Pingjum (1532-1536); while conducting the eucharist, he was convinced bread and wine could not be actual body and blood of Christ; enlightened by NT and writings of Luther and Reformers; studied infant baptism at time Anabaptists were persecuted; several hundred Munsterite Anabaptists killed including his brother (1535); publicly renounced Roman Catholic Church (1536); joined with Anabaptists and was baptized (1537); became Anabaptist leader; dealt with problems of corruption and fanaticism from within; preacher, writer, publisher; beliefs: idea of community of believers, marriage within community, adult baptism, distrust of learning, no politics, no bearing of arms, wary of dogmatic theology, reliance on Scriptures; writings: Renunciation of Rome, Foundation Book.
CONRAD GREBEL (1498-1526)
Founder of the Swiss Brethren, or Anabaptists; born in Zurich, Switzerland; educated in Basel, Vienna, Paris; a humanist until spiritually awakened (1522); disciple of Zwingli, whom he later criticized for not rejecting infant baptism, which he and others felt was unscriptural; met with Felix Manz and George Blaurock (who asked Grebel to rebaptize him); went about Zurich preaching and (re)baptizing; conflict with Zwingli and Zurich council, which supported Zwingli’s insistence on baptism of infants; Zurich council ordered Grebel and others to stop their activities; the Anabaptists continued, and some were drowned or otherwise martyred; Grebel left Zurich, preached elsewhere in Switzerland, and visited the brethren; Manz and Blaurock imprisoned in tower of Zurich; all escaped (1526); Grebel died of plague; biography: Harold S. Bender, Conrad Grebel, Scottdale, PA: Harold Press, 1950.
JOHN CALVIN (1509-1564)
Born in Noyon, Picardy, France; a reformer and theologian; studied the humanities at U. of Paris; experienced a dramatic conversion (1533); impressed with God’s sovereignty and the necessity of living according to His will; wrote Protestant-sounding inaugural address for friend chosen rector of U. of Paris; both were forced to leave Paris after vigorous rejection by Catholic clergy; went to Basel where he wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) emphasizing grace; settled in Geneva, which he made a church-state, the “Rome of Protestantism”; his Institutes became the guide for all Reformed churches.
JOHANN ARNDT (1555-1621)
Born in Anhalt, Germany; became a Lutheran pastor who opposed some teachings and practices of Lutheranism; influenced by Bernard of Clairvaux, John Tauler, Thomas “ Kempis; wrote True Christianity (banned in France, published by Zinzendorf), which stressed that orthodox doctrine is not enough to constitute one a true Christian, but that each one needs Christian experience (repentance, sanctification, etc.), a subjective work of Christ in the heart, and intimate fellowship and union with God; influenced Pietism, perhaps its founder; a lengthy introduction to his writings by Spener, entitled Pia Desideria, became the manifesto of Pietism; writings: True Christianity, New York: Paulist Press.
JACOB BOEHME (1575-1624)
Born near Gorlitz, in upper Lusatia, Germany; a Lutheran whose writings offended the orthodox church, which persecuted him causing him to flee; possessed a remarkable knowledge of Scriptures; claimed frequent visions and revelations; influenced William Law and Pietism; held that the true Christian life is an imitation of Christ’s sufferings and triumph; criticized Protestantism for its bibliolatry; writings: The Way to Christ (1623), New York: Paulist Press; biography: Rufus M. Jones, Spiritual Reformers in the 16th and 17th Centuries, Boston: Beacon Press, 1914.
BROTHER LAWRENCE (NICHOLAS HERMAN) (1605-1691)
Born in Lorraine, France; converted at age 18; became a Carmelite monk and worked in the monastery kitchen until his death; a “servant of the servants of God,” he “wedded work with prayer”; his maxims make up the book, The Practice of the Presence of God, which teaches that everything should be done out of love for God and in the consciousness of His presence; influenced Fenelon.
GEORGE FOX (1624-1691)
Preacher, founder of Society of Friends (Quakers); born at Drayton, Leicestershire, England; both Puritan training at home and association with Anabaptists markedly influenced his life; felt a lack in traditional religion; sought contact with the Spirit of God and direct intimate communion with God within his own spirit, which was also the secret to spiritual guidance; believed external formal ordinances were unnecessary and hypocritical; with such light he became an itinerant preacher and writer for 40 years (from 1647); traveled in England, Scotland, Holland, and America; against slavery, oaths, and military service; he and his followers were persecuted and imprisoned; rapid increase of followers, who spread to London, Bristol, Norwich; William Penn preached and defended Quaker faith; teachings: personal teaching of Holy Spirit (inner light), every member a priest of God, professional ministers rejected, baptism and Eucharist are inner, spiritual realities; main writing was his Journal.
JOHN BUNYAN (1628-1688)
Puritan writer and preacher, born near Bedford, England; led to the Lord by his wife; learned English by reading the Bible; was baptized in Baptist Church; arrested when he began to preach without permission from the established church; in Bedford jail for l2” years; there wrote the allegory, The Pilgrim’s Progress; freed by the Act of Pardon (1672) and given liberty to preach; served as pastor of Bedford Baptist Church for the rest of his life; wrote also Grace Abounding, The Holy War, and (published posthumously) Antichrist and Her Ruin (against the Church of Rome); buried in London.
PHILIP JACOB SPENER (1635-1705)
Founder of German Pietism; born in Alsace; educated in Strassburg, Basel, Geneva, Tubingen; preached in Strassburg; preached, taught, wrote in Frankfurt; weekly meetings in his home (Collegia Pietatis from which name Pietists derived) for Bible study, prayer, discussion of Sunday sermon; his book Pia Desideria (Heart’s Desires) of 1675 gave spiritual admonition for Christians: 1) Bible study in groups, 2) priesthood of all believers, 3) Christian life of loving service, 4) proper attitude in religious controversies, 5) need of personal conversion, 6) reformation of preaching and theological training; strong reaction from clergy; forced to stop preaching (Frankfurt); court chaplain to elector of Saxony (Dresden); joined August Hermann Francke (1688); resistance to his preaching forced Spener to leave; to Berlin where fruitful ministry and greatest work; founded U. of Halle (1694); promoted Sunday Schools, encouraged private devotions, stirred interest in missions; emphasis on personal spiritual life rather than mere acceptance of church doctrines; sponsored Zinzendorf’s baptism and visited his home; writings: Pia Desideria, translated and edited by Theodore G. Tappert, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964; Peter C. Erb, ed., Pietists: Selected Writings, New York: Paulist Press, 1983.
MADAME GUYON (JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER) (1648-1717)
Born near Orleans, France; educated in convents; an intense devotion to the name of Jesus; mother arranged her unhappy marriage to a rich invalid 22 years her senior (1664); sought close communion with God dwelling within her; after husband died she devoted herself to spiritual service; had visions, revelations, spiritual experiences; wrote a commentary on the Scriptures; denounced as dangerous and a follower of Molinos, a quietist mystic; arrested and imprisoned for months; close fellowship with Archbishop Fenelon; her writings examined and condemned by Catholic Archbishop Bossuet; Fenelon’s writings also condemned, and both withdrew their writings; Guyon continued her teachings; arrested, imprisoned in Bastille (1694-1702) until she recanted; did charitable work; composed spiritual verse: “The Joy of the Cross,” “The Testimony of Divine Adoption”; hymns: “A Little Bird I Am,” “I Love My Lord, but with No Love of Mine,” “Long Plunged in Sorrow,” “Strong Are the Walls Around Me”; wrote letters to Catholics and Protestants in France, Holland, Germany, England; biography: T.C. Upham, The Story of Madame Guyon’s Life, Augusta, ME: Christian Books; autobiography: The Autobiography of Madame Guyon, translated by Thomas Allen.
FRANCOIS FENELON (1651-1715)
French ecclesiastic; born in Perigord, France; at age twelve studied at the Jesuit University of Cohors, afterwards at the Jesuit College du Plessis, then theological studies at Seminary of St. Sulpice; ordained to Roman Catholic priesthood (1675); mission to convert the Huguenots (1686-1688); consecrated as archbishop of Cambrini (1695); preceptor of young duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV (1689); bitterly attacked, losing court favor for defending the teachings of Madame Guyon from suppression by the court of France and Bishop Bossuet; long and vigorous controversy with Bossuet; pope disapproved portion of his book on mysticism, Maximes des Saints, which Fenelon entirely burned; Maximes des Saints reprinted in Holland; continued church work but forbidden to teach young duke; founded seminary at Cambrini, where he died; best-known writing was educational novel, Telemaque (1699), which caused disfavor at court; biography: Viscount St. Cyres, Francois De Fenelon, London: Methuen & Co., 1901
AUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727)
A leader of Pietism; born in Lubeck, Germany; taught at U. of Leipzig (1684); organized Bible study class of university teachers (1686); converted in 1687; read Scriptures in Greek and Hebrew; met Spener, pietistic preacher, at Leipzig (1688) and adhered to his teachings; called to preach at Erfurt and Halle (1691); taught Oriental languages, Greek, theology at U. of Halle; followed principles of Spener in instruction: need of a conversion experience, use of Bible, prayer before and after class; established many institutions: seven schools for children, school for children of nobility and wealthy, seminary, chem laboratory and pharmacy, Bible society, bookstore, bindery, print shop, boarding school for poor students, home for widows and poor; all institutions were missionary training centers; had close contact with Zinzendorf while Zinzendorf was attending his Paedagogium; writings: Peter C. Erb, ed., Pietists. Selected Writings, New York: Paulist Press, 1983.
WILLIAM LAW (1686-1761)
Born in King’s Cliffe, Northamptonshire, England; educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he was a fellow; received holy orders (1711); refused oath of allegiance to George I, thus forfeiting fellowship and prospects of church advancement; appreciated writings of Boehme; at end of life established schools and almshouses; writings were valued by Philip Dodderidge and John Wesley, and some were later edited and prefaced by Andrew Murray; writings: Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life, On Christian Perfection, The Power of the Spirit (Address to the Clergy); biographies: A. Keith Walker, William Law: His Life and Work, London: S.P.C.K., 1973; Alexander Whyte, Characters and Characteristics Of William Law, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1893.
CHRISTIAN DAVID (1691-1751)
Born in Moravia of a Bohemian father and German mother; a carpenter; led a group of persecuted Moravian Christians to Saxony to seek asylum (1722); group was warmly received by Count Zinzendorf and allowed to settle on his estate near Berthelsdorf, the new community was named Herrnhut; David led several hundred other persecuted Moravian and Bohemian Brothers (Ancient Unitas Fratrum) to Herrnhut in the following years; elected as one of the first twelve elders of Herrnhut; led the first Moravian mission to Greenland (1733); died in Herrnhut.
JONATHAN EDWARDS (1703-1758)
Preacher, philosopher-theologian of colonial New England; born in East Windsor, Connecticut; maternal grandfather was Congregational pastor in Northfield, Massachusetts, for 57 years; studied Latin at six years of age with father and six sisters; by age 13 knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew and entered Yale College, graduating with highest honors before age 17 (1720); conversion same year; a preacher by age 19; a tutor at Yale for two years; his church a part of the Great Awakening (1734-1744); friend of George Whitefield; Calvinistic preacher whose sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” had a powerful influence; against admitting unconverted to the Lord’s Table and to church membership, which caused him to be ejected from pastorate; Congregational pastor in Stockbridge, Massachusetts (from 1751), and missionary to Housatonic Indians; president of Princeton College, New Jersey; his book, Freedom of the Will, defended foreordination, original sin, eternal punishment; sought to cast himself “on the Lord Jesus Christ, to trust and confide in Him, and consecrate myself wholly to Him”; died from smallpox inoculation.
COUNT ZINZENDORF (NICOLAUS LUDWIG) (1700-1760)
Founder of Moravian or Bohemian Brethren (revived Unitas Fratrum); born in Dresden, Germany, of noble Saxon parents; received early care from pietistic maternal grandmother, who often had Pietists such as Spener and Francke in her home; schooled in Halle (age ten to sixteen) under personal influence of Francke as to ideas of Pietism and missions; studied law at U. of Wittenberg, center of orthodox Lutheranism (1716-19); unsuccessfully tried to reconcile faculties of U. of Halle and U. of Wittenberg; traveling in Europe made contact with Reformed theology, non-church groups, Roman Catholics; entered civil service of Saxon government; held meetings in his Dresden home; used patrimony to purchase estate at Berthelsdorf; provided home for religious refugees from Moravia, Christian David their leader (1722); formed Christian community, called Herrnhut, of which he was landlord and spiritual overseer; other religious groups joined settlement; stressed a heart religion (deep, mystical, spiritual, experiential faith), worldwide evangelism, ecumenical relationships; sent out first missionaries to the Caribbean (1734), Greenland, America, Africa, and others; consecrated as bishop by Jablonski, a link to Hussite church; forced into exile, he established other communities in Germany, London, America; sought to unite Protestant groups in America, but failed (1741-43); in England (1749-1755); appointed Spangenberg bishop over America and West Indies; in later years experienced personal tragedy (death of son and wife) and financial difficulties; his motto: “I have but one passion; it is He, only He”; wrote as many as 2,000 hymns including “Jesus Thy Blood and Righteousness,” “Christian Hearts, in Love United”; biographies: John R. Weinlick, Count Zinzendorf, New York: Abingdon Press, 1956; A.J. Lewis, Zinzendorf the Ecumenical Pioneer, London: SCM Press Ltd., 1962; writings: Peter C. Erb, ed., Pietists: Selected Writings, New York: Paulist Press, 1983.
JOHN WESLEY (1703-1791)
Founder of Methodism; born in Epworth, England; his father Samuel was a High Churchman, grandparents Puritan Nonconformists; educated Christ Church, Oxford; pastoral assistant to his father for two and one-half years; ordained priest in Anglican Church (1728); returned to Oxford, joined his brother and the “Holy Club” for spiritual improvement, became its leader; adopted methodical procedures for meeting, study of NT in Greek, prayer, Lord’s Supper, charity; dubbed “Methodists”; accepted invitation of Society for Propagation of the Gospel to go to Indians and colonists in Georgia (1735); on way was impressed with godly demeanor of Moravians during severe storm; returned to England after a failed mission; helped by Moravian, Peter Bohler, to realize his unbelief; in a Moravian meeting in London was converted; visited Moravian settlement in Herrnhut, Germany, and met Zinzendorf; with his brother (Charles Wesley) and George Whitefield set out to evangelize Great Britain (“to beget, preserve, and increase the life of God in the souls of men”); Church of England buildings closed to them so used open-air preaching to reach the masses, organized converts into societies, eventually formed the Methodist Church; did itinerant preaching around England traveling on horseback more than 250,000 miles, preaching over 40,000 sermons; extended work to Ireland, Scotland, Wales; Coke and Asbury sent to do work in America; writings: N. Curnock, ed., Journal, 8 vols., 1909-16; E.H. Sugden, ed., Sermons, 2 vols., 1921; biography: John Telford, The Life of John Wesley, 3rd ed., London: Epworth Press, 1910; Ole E. Borgen, John Wesley, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1966.
PETER BOHLER (1712-1775)
Moravian missionary and minister, born at Frankfort-on-Main; sent by Zinzendorf to Georgia in the American colonies by way of London, where he founded what was to be the Fetter Lane Society (1738); here in a meeting John Wesley (May 24,1738) was converted; Bohler’s joyful faith a great influence on Wesley; Bohler moved the Moravian settlement from Georgia to Bethlehem, PA; appointed superintendent and bishop of Moravian Church in England; many travels to America, where he served as asst. superintendent of Moravian Church in America; buried in London; biography: J. P. Lockwood, Memorials of the Life of Bohler, London: Wesleyan Conference Office, 1868.
GEORGE WHITEFIELD (1714-1770)
English evangelist; born in Gloucester of an innkeeper; educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he associated with the Wesleys in “Holy Club”; there experienced an evangelical conversion; ordained a deacon; preached firstly in Gloucester, then in London; went to Georgia with Wesleys, with them from 1737 to 1741; when churches closed to him, preached out-of-doors up to 20 sermons a week; traveled great distances; adopted Calvinistic view of salvation, which differed from Wesley’s Arminian view, so parted (1743); itinerant preaching in Europe and America and throughout the United Kingdom.
ANTHONY NORRIS GROVES (1795-1853)
Missionary to Baghdad and India; one of the earliest of the Plymouth Brethren; born in Newton, Hampshire, England; studied in London; brought to the Lord through Miss Paget; practiced dentistry in London and Plymouth (1813); pastored small church near Exeter; studied at Trinity College, Dublin, with a view to taking orders; met Darby in Dublin; went to Baghdad as first Brethren missionary worker; later to India (1833) for 19 years as missionary; died in home of brother-in-law, George M?ller; biography: G.H. Lang, Anthony Norris Groves, London: The Paternoster Press, 1949.
JOHN NELSON DARBY (1800-1882)
Early leader and gifted teacher of the Plymouth Brethren; born in London; studied law at Trinity College, Dublin; graduated and was admitted to the bar (1825) but did not practice law; took orders in Church of Ireland and served a curacy; published tract On the Nature and Unity of the Church; resigned and left Church of Ireland (1827); joined with others of like mind in Dublin and had Lord’s Table; opposed to one-man ministry, denominationalism, formal church membership, and unscriptural church names; in 1830, visited Paris, Cambridge, Oxford, Plymouth (from where Plymouth Brethren name was derived); labored in France and Switzerland, where assemblies were formed (1838-1845); labored in England; dispute with B.W. Newton in Plymouth over prophecy and church practice led to two groups: Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren (1848); translated Bible into English and NT into German and French; traveled to Germany, France, Canada, United States, Italy, New Zealand, West Indies; a hymn-writer; biography: Max S. Weremchuk, John Nelson Darby, Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux Brothers, 1992.
GEORGE MULLER (1805-1898)
Preacher, pastor, evangelist; born near Magdeburg, Germany; attended school in Halle; took communion but not a Christian; very sinful life; soundly converted at Moravian mission (1825); to U. of Halle to prepare for Christian work; began to preach (1826); invited to England by Society for the Propagation of the Gospel to work among Jews; pastor of Ebenezer Chapel, Teignmouth, Derbyshire, England (1830); refused a salary, abolished pew rentals believing God would supply; to Bristol (1832) to help poor children and founded Scriptural Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad (1834); having no personal funds, opened orphanage with 26 girls (1849); with the addition of two more homes cared for 1,000 orphans (1866); by 1875 over 2,000; at all times his needs made known only to God; at 70 years of age embarked with wife on evangelistic tour of Europe, America, Australia (42 countries, 200,000 miles); fell asleep in the Lord at 93; personal possessions valued at $800; over 10,000 orphans cared for; autobiography: Autobiography of George Miller, London: J. Nisbett and Co., 1906; biography: A.T. Pierson, George Mueller of Bristol, London: Pickering & Inglis, 1899.
BENJAMIN WILLS NEWTON (1807-1899)
Labored among the Plymouth Brethren for 17 years; born in Plymouth, England; distinguished in studies at Exeter College, Cambridge; contributed articles to The Christian Witness; financially supported cousin, textual critic S.P. Tregelles, whom he led to the Lord; prominent in Plymouth assembly until 1845; took issue with Darby on prophetic teaching and church order; Darby started another meeting in Plymouth; Newton left Plymouth when accused of heterodoxy (1847); took up pastorate in London; authored many books even up to the age of 90.
ROBERT GOVETT (1813-1901)
Raised in Staines, Middlesex, England; fellow of Worcester College, Oxford (1830), honored with a life fellowship upon graduation (1835); ordained Anglican priest (1837); became a curate of St. Stephen, Norwich, where he drew large crowds; confessed his conscience was against infant baptism and resigned (1844); most of congregation left, made him their pastor, and met in Victoria Hall, Norwich; baptized 300-400 former Anglicans by 1848; built Surrey Chapel, Norwich, at his own expense (1854) and ministered there 47 years until his death; succeeded by D.M. Panton; recovered truths concerning second coming of Christ, reward or punishment at judgment seat of Christ, the kingdom; writings: many New Testament commentaries, expositions on Isaiah, Sermon on the Mount, New Jerusalem; The Twofoldness of Divine Truth, Harrisburg, PA: Christian Publications, n.d.
C.H. MACKINTOSH (CHARLES HENRY) (1820-1896)
Plymouth Brethren preacher and Bible expositor; born in County Wicklow, Ireland; deep spiritual experience at age 18 while reading writings of Darby; preached gospel in Dublin (1853); active in Irish revival (1859-1860); edited periodical, Things New and Old, wrote Notes on the Pentateuch (appreciated by Gladstone and Spurgeon); Miscellaneous Writings cover six volumes; passed away in Cheltenham.
WILLIAM KELLY (1821-1906)
Plymouth Brethren scholar; born in northern Ireland; graduated with highest honors in classics at Trinity College, Dublin; became a believer in Christ and joined the Brethren; co-worker of Darby, whose Collected Writings Kelly edited; editor of The Prospect (1848-1850), Bible Treasury (1856 until his death); aided Biblical textual critic, S.P. Tregelles; writings include lectures, expositions, notes on all books of Bible.
ANDREW MURRAY (1828-1917)
Dutch Reformed minister in South Africa; born in Graaff-Reinet, South Africa; studied in Aberdeen, master’s degree (1845); to Utrect U. to study theology and formed Students’ Missionary Society; served in Bloemfontein, South Africa (1850-60), Worcester (1860-64), Cape Town (1864-71), Wellington (1871-1906); moderator of Dutch Reformed Council; founded Huguenot Seminary (1874); established missionary training school (1877); father of South African Keswick (1889); greatly influenced by William Law; evangelistic meetings in United States, Canada, England, Iceland, Scotland, Holland, South Africa; writings: Spirit of Christ, Abide in Christ, Like Christ, With Christ in the School of Prayer, and many others.
J. HUDSON TAYLOR (JAMES) (1832-1905)
Founder of the China Inland Mission; born in Barnsley, Yorkshire, England; studied medicine and theology; went to China under newly-formed China Evangelization Society arriving at Shanghai in 1854; stressed prayer and faith in receiving funds; adopted Chinese dress; Dr. Medhurst’s book, China, stirred Taylor to go; upon arrival, stayed with Dr. Medhurst for six months; lived in Shanghai, Swatow, Ningpo (1854-1860); resigned from Society but continued in dependence on the Lord; in charge of hospital (Ningpo); married missionary’s daughter, Maria Dyer (1858); returned home (1860), translated NT into Ningpo dialect, wrote book on China, prayed for missionaries for inland China and established China Inland Mission (CIM); returned to China with wife, children, 16 new missionaries (1866); as CIM director visited China and Europe; returned to China (1872); died at Changsha; at the time of his death, CIM had 205 stations, 125,000 Chinese Christians; biographies: Dr. and Mrs. Howard Taylor, Hudson Taylor in Early Years, 2nd ed., London: Morgan & Scott, 1912; Dr. and Mrs. Howard Taylor, Hudson Taylor and the China Inland Mission, London: The China Inland Mission, 1918.
C.H. SPURGEON (CHARLES HADDON) (1834-1892)
Baptist preacher; born in Kelvedon, Essex, of Huguenot ancestry; educated both in Colchester, where he was converted (1850), and in Maidstone; felt need of baptism by immersion after studying Scriptures and joined the Baptists (1857); first preached at age 16 in Teversham near Cambridge; gained fame as a “boy preacher”; preached at 16 different places in evenings after school; pastor of Baptist Church in Waterbeach (1851); at 20 pastor of New Park Street Church, Southwark, London (1854); later built Metropolitan Tabernacle (seated 6,000) to accommodate crowds (1861); founded Pastors’ College (1856); established Stockwell orphanage: twelve houses, 500 children; rebuked evangelical party within Church of England on baptism (Baptismal Regeneration Controversy); withdrew from Baptist Union because of biblical criticism; an evangelical, Baptist, Calvinist; died in Mentone, France, where he went for health; read 17th-century Puritan writings; edited monthly church magazine, Sword and the Trowel; writings: Treasury of David, six volumes, Lectures to My Students, Commenting and Commentaries; biography: Henry Davenport Northrup, Life and Works of Rev. Charles H. Spurgeon.
D.L. MOODY (DWIGHT LYMAN) (1837-1899)
Evangelist; born in Northfield, Massachusetts; little education; went to Boston seeking employment, became a shoe clerk; led to Christ by Sunday School teacher; went to Chicago (1856); gathered children for his Sunday School class; organized a Sunday School of 1,500; left secular employment at 23; sought after by Sunday School conventions; worked among Civil War soldiers; influenced Y.M.C.A. and became its president (1865); erected church building (Illinois Street between La Salle and Wells) which was destroyed by Chicago fire (1871); new building at Chicago and La Salle forerunner of Moody Memorial Church (North and La Salle); founded Northfield Seminary for girls (1879), Mount Hermon School for boys (1881); started first Bible school (1886), Chicago Evangelization Society, later Moody Bible Institute; inaugurated summer conferences and student conferences in Northfield (1880-1886); wide-spread evangelistic work: Moody-Sankey campaigns (England, Ireland, Scotland, America-hundreds of thousands brought to Lord by Moody’s preaching and Sankey’s singing); founded Colportage Association to distribute inexpensive Christian literature (1895); became ill and died in midst of Kansas City campaign; biographies: W.R. Moody, The Life of D.L. Moody (by his son), New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1900; James F. Findlay, Jr., Dwight L. Moody.- American Evangelist, 1837-1899, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969.
G.H. PEMBER (GEORGE HAWKINS) (1837-1910)
Educated at Gonville and Gaius College, Cambridge (1856), receiving high honors in the classics and a B.A. (1860); wrote Earth’s Earliest Ages and The Great Prophecies, 4 vols.
A.B. SIMPSON (ALBERT BENJAMIN) (1843-1919)
Presbyterian minister, founder of Christian and Missionary Alliance; born Prince Edward Island, Canada; educated Knox College, Toronto; pastor Knox Presbyterian Church, Hamilton (1865) then to Chestnut Pres. Church, Louisville, Kentucky (1879); experience of revival and “fullness of the blessing of Christ’; to New York, Thirteenth Street Presbyterian Church (1881); health gave out; told he had one month to live, healed by the Lord; labored strenuously for 35 more years; preached four-fold gospel: Jesus as Savior, Sanctifier, Healer, coming King; left Presbyterian Church to begin a new work (from 1881) meeting in New York at Eighth Avenue and Forty-fourth Street, which became an evangelical center; began and edited Alliance Weekly; organized Christian and Missionary Alliance (1897); wrote more than 70 books on Bible, theology, missions, spiritual life; hymns include “Tell Me Not of Earthly Pleasures,” “Crucified with Christ My Savior,” “I Am Crucified with Christ,” “Jesus Only Is Our Message”; biographies: A.E. Thompson, The Life of A.B. Simpson, New York: The Christian Alliance Publishing Company, 1920; A.W. Tozer, Wingspread: Albert B. Simpson, Harrisburg, PA: Christian Publications, 1943.
JESSIE PENN-LEWIS (1861-1927)
Born in Neath, South Wales; given to the Lord by her parents; raised in a Calvinistic Methodist home; read Bible at age four; married at age 19 to William Penn-Lewis, age 21, a descendent of William Penn, Pilgrim father and founder of Pennsylvania; conversion after seeking the Lord, impressed with Isaiah 53:6 (1882); taught Bible class at Y.W.C.A., Richmond (1886); spoke at meetings in Brighton and Eastbourne; spoke to China Inland Mission (1895); first booklet, The Pathway of Life in God; spoke in many countries: Sweden (1896), Russia (1897), Switzerland, Finland, Denmark (1898), Canada, United States (1900), India (1903); speaker at Keswick Conventions (1899, 1903); influenced by Madame Guyon’s writings on the cross; edited The Overcomer magazine, 1909-1914 (first series), 1920-1925 (second series); held monthly conferences for Christian workers at Eccleston Hall, London; spoke at annual conferences sponsored by The Overcomer at Swanwick, North Derbyshire (1920-27) where T. Austin-Sparks was invited to speak; death of husband (1925), her “fellow-heir of the grace of life” (I Pet. 3:7); did not practice immersion and laying on of hands; emphasis of her ministry was the cross; writings: The Centrality of the Cross, The Cross of Calvary, The Cross-The Touchstone of Faith, War on the Saints (Watchman Nee used material from her War on the Saints in writing The Spiritual Man, Vol. 3, Part 9); many other books and booklets; biography: Mary N. Geffard, Jessie Penn-Lewis: A Memoir, 2nd ed., Bristol: The Overcomer Literature Trust Ltd., 1947.
M.E. BARBER (MARGARET EMMA) (1866-1930)
Born in Suffolk County, England; went to Fukien, China, as an Anglican missionary; returned to England; D.M. Panton helped her to see denominations from God’s standpoint; went back to China without any denominational connection; settled in Kulangsu, Fukien; spiritual help and support from D.M. Panton; helped edify and perfect Watchman Nee; poems and hymns show a deep experience of Christ (Songs of the Heavenly Way); passed away in Anchorage Pagoda, China.
D.M. PANTON (DAVID MORRISON) (1870-1955)
Author, pastor, editor, Bible student; born in Jamaica, where father was first archdeacon, a missionary of the Church of England; his uncle Archbishop of West Indies; studied law at Gaius College, Cambridge; tutored godly man, Labarestier, who spoke to him of the coming kingdom, glory of Christ, requirements to share Christ’s reign; gave up his legal career, being fully occupied with these and related truths such as the responsibility and accountability of every Christian for his stewardship before the judgment seat of his Lord; succeeded Govett as pastor of Surrey Chapel, Norwich (from 1901); began the Dawn magazine in 1924 and continued editing it until his death; among his writings: Rapture, The Judgment Seat of Christ.
G. H. LANG (GEORGE HENRY) (1874-1958)
Teacher and prolific writer; born in southeast London, England; mother died shortly after birth; raised in a godly home; reborn at seven years of age; in early years attended Exclusive Brethren meetings, later met with Open Brethren; influenced by writings of G.H. Pember, C.H. Spurgeon, A.T. Pierson, George Muller; ministered the Word of God throughout England, Scotland, Norway, Germany, Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, India; held that the only qualification for partaking of Lord’s Table was having received Christ; considered by some as the most controversial figure since Darby; challenged Darby’s federation view, stressing local church autonomy and independence; edited periodical, The Disciple (1953-1958), containing many of his articles; edited works of G.H. Pember and translated (from German) the works of E. Sauer; contributed articles to The Evangelical Quarterly (edited by F.F. Bruce); writings: Pictures and Parables, Anthony Norris Groves-Saint and Pioneer, and many others; died in Wimborne, Dorset, England; autobiography: An Ordered Life: Autobiography, London: The Paternoster Press, 1959.
T. AUSTIN-SPARKS (THEODORE) (1888-1971)
Born in London; his ministry was based in southeast London at the Honor Oak Christian Fellowship Center but extended world-wide through conferences in the U.K., personal visits abroad, and publication of the periodical, A Witness and a Testimony (1923-1971); co-worker of Jesse Penn-Lewis (1923-1926); conducted conferences in Taipei (1955, 1957); emphasized the truths concerning the Body of Christ and the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ; used such terms as “all-inclusive,” “recovery,” and “incorporation into Christ”; writings: The Stewardship of the Mystery, 2 vols., What is Man?, The Centrality and Universality ofthe Cross, and others.
A.W. TOZER (AIDEN WILSON) (1897-1963)
Pastor, author, editor; born in Newburg, Pennsylvania; family moved to Akron (1912); very little education; held pastorates in West Virginia (1919-22), Toledo (1922-23), Indianapolis (1923-28), Chicago (1928-59), Toronto (1959-63); editor of The Alliance Weekly (1950); father of seven children; library included 40 versions of Bible and writings of church fathers and Christian mystics such as Athanasius, Bernard of Clairvaux, Eckhart, Fenelon, Guyon, Augustine, “ Kempis, Brother Lawrence, Tersteegen, Wesley; wrote biography of A.B. Simpson, Wingspread, other writings: Pursuit of God, The Divine Conquest, Keys to the Deeper Life, Born after Midnight, Man-The Dwelling Place of God, That Incredible Christian, The Knowledge of the Holy; biography: David J. Fant, Jr., A. W. Tozer: A Twentieth Century Prophet, Harrisburg, PA: Christian Publications, 1964.
WATCHMAN NEE (1903-1972)
Opened up recovery work of the Lord in 20th century; born in Foochow, China; studied truths recovered throughout the centuries; fully unveiled the central revelation of the Bible: salvation, the church, Christ as life, and the Body of Christ; led saints into the experiences of these divine revelations; raised up more than 400 churches in China; imprisoned for the Lord’s sake; martyred; exerted a profound influence in countries throughout the world through the spread of his written ministry; writings: various periodicals, The Spiritual Man, The Normal Christian Life, The Normal Christian Church Life, The Glorious Church, The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, The Ministry of God’s Word, and many others; autobiography: Watchman Nee’s Testimony, Anaheim: Living Stream Ministry, 1991; biographies: Suey Liu, ed., A Presentation of the Lord’s Recovery (Tour Guide), Taipei: Taiwan Gospel Book Room, 1998; Angus Kinnear, Against the Tide, Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade, 1973; Witness Lee, Watchman Nee: A Seer of the Divine Revelation in the Present Age, Anaheim: Living Stream Ministry, 1991.
WITNESS LEE (1905-1997)
Co-worker of Watchman Nee; born in Chefoo, China; succeeded Nee in his ministry and further developed what Nee had received from the Lord; released the Lord’s present speaking, reaching high peak of the divine revelation in the Bible; presented God’s eternal economy as God becoming a man that man may become God in life and nature for the constitution of the Body of Christ; saw God’s ultimate goal: that the Body would consummate in the New Jerusalem, the universal incorporation of divinity joined and mingled with humanity; raised up more than two thousand churches in the six continents, attaining to a high peak of propagation; writings: Life-Study (32 vols., covering every book of the Bible), Anaheim: Living Stream Ministry; The Experience of Life, The Economy of God, The Practical Expression of the Church, The New Testament Priests of the Gospel, The High Peak of the Vision and the Reality of the Body of Christ, and many others; biographies: Suey Liu, ed., A Presentation of the Lord’s Recovery (Tour Guide), Taipei: Taiwan Gospel Book Room, 1998; A Memorial Biography of brother Witness Lee, Anaheim: Living Stream Ministry, 1998